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1998-09-11 Ulrich Drepper <drepper@cygnus.com> * iconvdata/Makefile (modules): Add CSN_369103, CWI, DEC-MCS, ECMA-CYRILLIC, GOST_19768-74, GREEK-CCITT, GREEK7, GREEK7-OLD, INIS, INIS-8, INIS-CYRILLIC, ISO_6937-2, ISO_2033, ISO_5427, ISO_5427-EXT, and ISO_5428. Define *-routines variables for new modules. (distribute): Add .c files for new modules. (awk-generated-headers): Add csn_369103.h, cwi.h, dec-mcs.h, ecma-cyrillic.h, gost_19768-74.h, greek-ccitt.h, greek7.h, greek7-old.h, inis.h, inis-8.h, inis-cyrillic.h, iso_2033.h, iso_5427.h, iso_5427-ext.h, and iso_5428.h. Add rules for hedaer generation. * iconvdata/gconv-modules: Add entries for new modules. * iconvdata/csn_369103.c: New file. * iconvdata/cwi.c: New file. * iconvdata/dec-mcs.c: New file. * iconvdata/ecma-cyrillic.c: New file. * iconvdata/gost_19768-74.c: New file. * iconvdata/greek-ccitt.c: New file. * iconvdata/greek7-old.c: New file. * iconvdata/greek7.c: New file. * iconvdata/inis-8.c: New file. * iconvdata/inis-cyrillic.c: New file. * iconvdata/inis.c: New file. * iconvdata/iso6937-2.c: New file. * iconvdata/iso_2033.c: New file. * iconvdata/iso_5427-ext.c: New file. * iconvdata/iso_5427.c: New file. * iconvdata/iso_5428.c: New file. * iconvdata/iso6937.c (from_ucs4): Correct 0x80, 0x81, and 0xb9 entries. Convert U02dd correctly. * sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/Makefile [subdir==misc] (sysdep_headers): Remove sys/debugreg.h. * sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/i386/Makefile [subdir==misc] (sysdep_headers): Add sys/debugreg.h.
1170 lines
53 KiB
Plaintext
1170 lines
53 KiB
Plaintext
@menu
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* Introduction:: Purpose of the GNU C Library.
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* Error Reporting:: How library functions report errors.
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* Memory Allocation:: Allocating memory dynamically and
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manipulating it via pointers.
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* Character Handling:: Character testing and conversion functions.
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* String and Array Utilities:: Utilities for copying and comparing strings
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and arrays.
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* Extended Characters:: Support for extended character sets.
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* Locales:: The country and language can affect the
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behavior of library functions.
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* Message Translation:: How to make the program speak the user's
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language.
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* Searching and Sorting:: General searching and sorting functions.
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* Pattern Matching:: Matching shell ``globs'' and regular
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expressions.
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* I/O Overview:: Introduction to the I/O facilities.
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* I/O on Streams:: Hign-level, portable I/O facilities.
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* Low-Level I/O:: Low-level, less portable I/O.
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* File System Interface:: Functions for manipulating files.
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* Pipes and FIFOs:: A simple interprocess communication
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mechanism.
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* Sockets:: A more complicated IPC mechanism, with
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networking support.
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* Low-Level Terminal Interface:: How to change the characteristics of a
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terminal device.
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* Mathematics:: Math functions, useful constants, random
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numbers.
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* Arithmetic:: Low level arithmetic functions.
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* Date and Time:: Functions for getting the date and time and
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formatting them nicely.
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* Non-Local Exits:: Jumping out of nested function calls.
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* Signal Handling:: How to send, block, and handle signals.
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* Process Startup:: Writing the beginning and end of your
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program.
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* Processes:: How to create processes and run other
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programs.
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* Job Control:: All about process groups and sessions.
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* Name Service Switch:: Accessing system databases.
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* Users and Groups:: How users are identified and classified.
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* System Information:: Getting information about the hardware and
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operating system.
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* System Configuration:: Parameters describing operating system
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limits.
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Add-ons
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* POSIX Threads:: The standard threads library.
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Appendices
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* Language Features:: C language features provided by the library.
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* Library Summary:: A summary showing the syntax, header file,
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and derivation of each library feature.
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* Installation:: How to install the GNU C library.
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* Maintenance:: How to enhance and port the GNU C Library.
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* Contributors:: Who wrote what parts of the GNU C library.
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* Copying:: The GNU Library General Public License says
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how you can copy and share the GNU C Library.
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Indices
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* Concept Index:: Index of concepts and names.
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* Type Index:: Index of types and type qualifiers.
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* Function Index:: Index of functions and function-like macros.
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* Variable Index:: Index of variables and variable-like macros.
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* File Index:: Index of programs and files.
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--- The Detailed Node Listing ---
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Introduction
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* Getting Started:: What this manual is for and how to use it.
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* Standards and Portability:: Standards and sources upon which the GNU
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C library is based.
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* Using the Library:: Some practical uses for the library.
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* Roadmap to the Manual:: Overview of the remaining chapters in
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this manual.
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Standards and Portability
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* ISO C:: The international standard for the C
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programming language.
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* POSIX:: The ISO/IEC 9945 (aka IEEE 1003) standards
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for operating systems.
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* Berkeley Unix:: BSD and SunOS.
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* SVID:: The System V Interface Description.
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* XPG:: The X/Open Portability Guide.
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Using the Library
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* Header Files:: How to include the header files in your
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programs.
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* Macro Definitions:: Some functions in the library may really
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be implemented as macros.
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* Reserved Names:: The C standard reserves some names for
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the library, and some for users.
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* Feature Test Macros:: How to control what names are defined.
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Error Reporting
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* Checking for Errors:: How errors are reported by library functions.
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* Error Codes:: Error code macros; all of these expand
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into integer constant values.
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* Error Messages:: Mapping error codes onto error messages.
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Memory Allocation
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* Memory Concepts:: An introduction to concepts and terminology.
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* Dynamic Allocation and C:: How to get different kinds of allocation in C.
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* Unconstrained Allocation:: The @code{malloc} facility allows fully general
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dynamic allocation.
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* Allocation Debugging:: Finding memory leaks and not freed memory.
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* Obstacks:: Obstacks are less general than malloc
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but more efficient and convenient.
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* Variable Size Automatic:: Allocation of variable-sized blocks
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of automatic storage that are freed when the
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calling function returns.
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Unconstrained Allocation
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* Basic Allocation:: Simple use of @code{malloc}.
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* Malloc Examples:: Examples of @code{malloc}. @code{xmalloc}.
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* Freeing after Malloc:: Use @code{free} to free a block you
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got with @code{malloc}.
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* Changing Block Size:: Use @code{realloc} to make a block
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bigger or smaller.
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* Allocating Cleared Space:: Use @code{calloc} to allocate a
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block and clear it.
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* Efficiency and Malloc:: Efficiency considerations in use of
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these functions.
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* Aligned Memory Blocks:: Allocating specially aligned memory:
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@code{memalign} and @code{valloc}.
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* Malloc Tunable Parameters:: Use @code{mallopt} to adjust allocation
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parameters.
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* Heap Consistency Checking:: Automatic checking for errors.
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* Hooks for Malloc:: You can use these hooks for debugging
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programs that use @code{malloc}.
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* Statistics of Malloc:: Getting information about how much
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memory your program is using.
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* Summary of Malloc:: Summary of @code{malloc} and related functions.
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Allocation Debugging
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* Tracing malloc:: How to install the tracing functionality.
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* Using the Memory Debugger:: Example programs excerpts.
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* Tips for the Memory Debugger:: Some more or less clever ideas.
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* Interpreting the traces:: What do all these lines mean?
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Obstacks
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* Creating Obstacks:: How to declare an obstack in your program.
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* Preparing for Obstacks:: Preparations needed before you can
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use obstacks.
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* Allocation in an Obstack:: Allocating objects in an obstack.
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* Freeing Obstack Objects:: Freeing objects in an obstack.
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* Obstack Functions:: The obstack functions are both
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functions and macros.
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* Growing Objects:: Making an object bigger by stages.
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* Extra Fast Growing:: Extra-high-efficiency (though more
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complicated) growing objects.
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* Status of an Obstack:: Inquiries about the status of an obstack.
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* Obstacks Data Alignment:: Controlling alignment of objects in obstacks.
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* Obstack Chunks:: How obstacks obtain and release chunks;
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efficiency considerations.
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* Summary of Obstacks::
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Variable Size Automatic
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* Alloca Example:: Example of using @code{alloca}.
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* Advantages of Alloca:: Reasons to use @code{alloca}.
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* Disadvantages of Alloca:: Reasons to avoid @code{alloca}.
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* GNU C Variable-Size Arrays:: Only in GNU C, here is an alternative
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method of allocating dynamically and
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freeing automatically.
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Character Handling
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* Classification of Characters:: Testing whether characters are
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letters, digits, punctuation, etc.
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* Case Conversion:: Case mapping, and the like.
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String and Array Utilities
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* Representation of Strings:: Introduction to basic concepts.
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* String/Array Conventions:: Whether to use a string function or an
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arbitrary array function.
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* String Length:: Determining the length of a string.
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* Copying and Concatenation:: Functions to copy the contents of strings
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and arrays.
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* String/Array Comparison:: Functions for byte-wise and character-wise
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comparison.
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* Collation Functions:: Functions for collating strings.
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* Search Functions:: Searching for a specific element or substring.
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* Finding Tokens in a String:: Splitting a string into tokens by looking
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for delimiters.
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* Encode Binary Data:: Encoding and Decoding of Binary Data.
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* Argz and Envz Vectors:: Null-separated string vectors.
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Argz and Envz Vectors
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* Argz Functions:: Operations on argz vectors.
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* Envz Functions:: Additional operations on environment vectors.
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Extended Characters
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* Extended Char Intro:: Multibyte codes versus wide characters.
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* Locales and Extended Chars:: The locale selects the character codes.
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* Multibyte Char Intro:: How multibyte codes are represented.
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* Wide Char Intro:: How wide characters are represented.
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* Wide String Conversion:: Converting wide strings to multibyte code
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and vice versa.
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* Length of Char:: how many bytes make up one multibyte char.
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* Converting One Char:: Converting a string character by character.
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* Example of Conversion:: Example showing why converting
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one character at a time may be useful.
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* Shift State:: Multibyte codes with "shift characters".
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Locales
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* Effects of Locale:: Actions affected by the choice of
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locale.
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* Choosing Locale:: How the user specifies a locale.
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* Locale Categories:: Different purposes for which you can
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select a locale.
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* Setting the Locale:: How a program specifies the locale
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with library functions.
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* Standard Locales:: Locale names available on all systems.
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* Locale Information:: How to access the information for the locale.
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* Formatting Numbers:: A dedicated function to format numbers.
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Locale Information
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* The Lame Way to Locale Data:: ISO C's @code{localeconv}.
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* The Elegant and Fast Way:: X/Open's @code{nl_langinfo}.
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The Lame Way to Locale Data
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* General Numeric:: Parameters for formatting numbers and
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currency amounts.
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* Currency Symbol:: How to print the symbol that identifies an
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amount of money (e.g. @samp{$}).
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* Sign of Money Amount:: How to print the (positive or negative) sign
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for a monetary amount, if one exists.
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Message Translation
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* Message catalogs a la X/Open:: The @code{catgets} family of functions.
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* The Uniforum approach:: The @code{gettext} family of functions.
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Message catalogs a la X/Open
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* The catgets Functions:: The @code{catgets} function family.
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* The message catalog files:: Format of the message catalog files.
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* The gencat program:: How to generate message catalogs files which
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can be used by the functions.
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* Common Usage:: How to use the @code{catgets} interface.
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The Uniforum approach
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* Message catalogs with gettext:: The @code{gettext} family of functions.
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* Helper programs for gettext:: Programs to handle message catalogs
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for @code{gettext}.
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Message catalogs with gettext
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* Translation with gettext:: What has to be done to translate a message.
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* Locating gettext catalog:: How to determine which catalog to be used.
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* Using gettextized software:: The possibilities of the user to influence
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the way @code{gettext} works.
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Searching and Sorting
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* Comparison Functions:: Defining how to compare two objects.
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Since the sort and search facilities
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are general, you have to specify the
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ordering.
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* Array Search Function:: The @code{bsearch} function.
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* Array Sort Function:: The @code{qsort} function.
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* Search/Sort Example:: An example program.
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* Hash Search Function:: The @code{hsearch} function.
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* Tree Search Function:: The @code{tsearch} function.
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Pattern Matching
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* Wildcard Matching:: Matching a wildcard pattern against a single string.
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* Globbing:: Finding the files that match a wildcard pattern.
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* Regular Expressions:: Matching regular expressions against strings.
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* Word Expansion:: Expanding shell variables, nested commands,
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arithmetic, and wildcards.
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This is what the shell does with shell commands.
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Globbing
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* Calling Glob:: Basic use of @code{glob}.
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* Flags for Globbing:: Flags that enable various options in @code{glob}.
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* More Flags for Globbing:: GNU specific extensions to @code{glob}.
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Regular Expressions
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* POSIX Regexp Compilation:: Using @code{regcomp} to prepare to match.
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* Flags for POSIX Regexps:: Syntax variations for @code{regcomp}.
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* Matching POSIX Regexps:: Using @code{regexec} to match the compiled
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pattern that you get from @code{regcomp}.
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* Regexp Subexpressions:: Finding which parts of the string were matched.
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* Subexpression Complications:: Find points of which parts were matched.
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* Regexp Cleanup:: Freeing storage; reporting errors.
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Word Expansion
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* Expansion Stages:: What word expansion does to a string.
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* Calling Wordexp:: How to call @code{wordexp}.
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* Flags for Wordexp:: Options you can enable in @code{wordexp}.
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* Wordexp Example:: A sample program that does word expansion.
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I/O Overview
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* I/O Concepts:: Some basic information and terminology.
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* File Names:: How to refer to a file.
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I/O Concepts
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* Streams and File Descriptors:: The GNU Library provides two ways
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to access the contents of files.
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* File Position:: The number of bytes from the
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beginning of the file.
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File Names
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* Directories:: Directories contain entries for files.
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* File Name Resolution:: A file name specifies how to look up a file.
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* File Name Errors:: Error conditions relating to file names.
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* File Name Portability:: File name portability and syntax issues.
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I/O on Streams
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* Streams:: About the data type representing a stream.
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* Standard Streams:: Streams to the standard input and output
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devices are created for you.
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* Opening Streams:: How to create a stream to talk to a file.
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* Closing Streams:: Close a stream when you are finished with it.
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* Simple Output:: Unformatted output by characters and lines.
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* Character Input:: Unformatted input by characters and words.
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* Line Input:: Reading a line or a record from a stream.
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* Unreading:: Peeking ahead/pushing back input just read.
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* Block Input/Output:: Input and output operations on blocks of data.
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* Formatted Output:: @code{printf} and related functions.
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* Customizing Printf:: You can define new conversion specifiers for
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@code{printf} and friends.
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* Formatted Input:: @code{scanf} and related functions.
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* EOF and Errors:: How you can tell if an I/O error happens.
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* Binary Streams:: Some systems distinguish between text files
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and binary files.
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* File Positioning:: About random-access streams.
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* Portable Positioning:: Random access on peculiar ISO C systems.
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* Stream Buffering:: How to control buffering of streams.
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* Other Kinds of Streams:: Streams that do not necessarily correspond
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to an open file.
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* Formatted Messages:: Print strictly formatted messages.
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Unreading
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* Unreading Idea:: An explanation of unreading with pictures.
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* How Unread:: How to call @code{ungetc} to do unreading.
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Formatted Output
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* Formatted Output Basics:: Some examples to get you started.
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* Output Conversion Syntax:: General syntax of conversion
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specifications.
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* Table of Output Conversions:: Summary of output conversions and
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what they do.
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* Integer Conversions:: Details about formatting of integers.
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* Floating-Point Conversions:: Details about formatting of
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floating-point numbers.
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* Other Output Conversions:: Details about formatting of strings,
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characters, pointers, and the like.
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* Formatted Output Functions:: Descriptions of the actual functions.
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* Dynamic Output:: Functions that allocate memory for the output.
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* Variable Arguments Output:: @code{vprintf} and friends.
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* Parsing a Template String:: What kinds of args does a given template
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call for?
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* Example of Parsing:: Sample program using @code{parse_printf_format}.
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Customizing Printf
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* Registering New Conversions:: Using @code{register_printf_function}
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to register a new output conversion.
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* Conversion Specifier Options:: The handler must be able to get
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the options specified in the
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template when it is called.
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* Defining the Output Handler:: Defining the handler and arginfo
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functions that are passed as arguments
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to @code{register_printf_function}.
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* Printf Extension Example:: How to define a @code{printf}
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handler function.
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* Predefined Printf Handlers:: Predefined @code{printf} handlers.
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Formatted Input
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* Formatted Input Basics:: Some basics to get you started.
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* Input Conversion Syntax:: Syntax of conversion specifications.
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* Table of Input Conversions:: Summary of input conversions and what they do.
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* Numeric Input Conversions:: Details of conversions for reading numbers.
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* String Input Conversions:: Details of conversions for reading strings.
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* Dynamic String Input:: String conversions that @code{malloc} the buffer.
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* Other Input Conversions:: Details of miscellaneous other conversions.
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* Formatted Input Functions:: Descriptions of the actual functions.
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* Variable Arguments Input:: @code{vscanf} and friends.
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Stream Buffering
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* Buffering Concepts:: Terminology is defined here.
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* Flushing Buffers:: How to ensure that output buffers are flushed.
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* Controlling Buffering:: How to specify what kind of buffering to use.
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Other Kinds of Streams
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* String Streams:: Streams that get data from or put data in
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a string or memory buffer.
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* Obstack Streams:: Streams that store data in an obstack.
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* Custom Streams:: Defining your own streams with an arbitrary
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input data source and/or output data sink.
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Custom Streams
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* Streams and Cookies:: The @dfn{cookie} records where to fetch or
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store data that is read or written.
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* Hook Functions:: How you should define the four @dfn{hook
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functions} that a custom stream needs.
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Formatted Messages
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* Printing Formatted Messages:: The @code{fmtmsg} function.
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* Adding Severity Classes:: Add more severity classes.
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* Example:: How to use @code{fmtmsg} and @code{addseverity}.
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Low-Level I/O
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* Opening and Closing Files:: How to open and close file
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descriptors.
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* Truncating Files:: Change the size of a file.
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* I/O Primitives:: Reading and writing data.
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* File Position Primitive:: Setting a descriptor's file
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position.
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* Descriptors and Streams:: Converting descriptor to stream
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or vice-versa.
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* Stream/Descriptor Precautions:: Precautions needed if you use both
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descriptors and streams.
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* Scatter-Gather:: Fast I/O to discontinous buffers.
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* Memory-mapped I/O:: Using files like memory.
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* Waiting for I/O:: How to check for input or output
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on multiple file descriptors.
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* Synchronizing I/O:: Making sure all I/O actions completed.
|
|
* Asynchronous I/O:: Perform I/O in parallel.
|
|
* Control Operations:: Various other operations on file
|
|
descriptors.
|
|
* Duplicating Descriptors:: Fcntl commands for duplicating
|
|
file descriptors.
|
|
* Descriptor Flags:: Fcntl commands for manipulating
|
|
flags associated with file
|
|
descriptors.
|
|
* File Status Flags:: Fcntl commands for manipulating
|
|
flags associated with open files.
|
|
* File Locks:: Fcntl commands for implementing
|
|
file locking.
|
|
* Interrupt Input:: Getting an asynchronous signal when
|
|
input arrives.
|
|
* IOCTLs:: Generic I/O Control operations.
|
|
|
|
Stream/Descriptor Precautions
|
|
|
|
* Linked Channels:: Dealing with channels sharing a file position.
|
|
* Independent Channels:: Dealing with separately opened, unlinked channels.
|
|
* Cleaning Streams:: Cleaning a stream makes it safe to use
|
|
another channel.
|
|
|
|
Asynchronous I/O
|
|
|
|
* Asynchronous Reads/Writes:: Asynchronous Read and Write Operations.
|
|
* Status of AIO Operations:: Getting the Status of AIO Operations.
|
|
* Synchronizing AIO Operations:: Getting into a consistent state.
|
|
* Cancel AIO Operations:: Cancelation of AIO Operations.
|
|
* Configuration of AIO:: How to optimize the AIO implementation.
|
|
|
|
File Status Flags
|
|
|
|
* Access Modes:: Whether the descriptor can read or write.
|
|
* Open-time Flags:: Details of @code{open}.
|
|
* Operating Modes:: Special modes to control I/O operations.
|
|
* Getting File Status Flags:: Fetching and changing these flags.
|
|
|
|
File System Interface
|
|
|
|
* Working Directory:: This is used to resolve relative
|
|
file names.
|
|
* Accessing Directories:: Finding out what files a directory
|
|
contains.
|
|
* Working on Directory Trees:: Apply actions to all files or a selectable
|
|
subset of a directory hierarchy.
|
|
* Hard Links:: Adding alternate names to a file.
|
|
* Symbolic Links:: A file that ``points to'' a file name.
|
|
* Deleting Files:: How to delete a file, and what that means.
|
|
* Renaming Files:: Changing a file's name.
|
|
* Creating Directories:: A system call just for creating a directory.
|
|
* File Attributes:: Attributes of individual files.
|
|
* Making Special Files:: How to create special files.
|
|
* Temporary Files:: Naming and creating temporary files.
|
|
|
|
Accessing Directories
|
|
|
|
* Directory Entries:: Format of one directory entry.
|
|
* Opening a Directory:: How to open a directory stream.
|
|
* Reading/Closing Directory:: How to read directory entries from the stream.
|
|
* Simple Directory Lister:: A very simple directory listing program.
|
|
* Random Access Directory:: Rereading part of the directory
|
|
already read with the same stream.
|
|
* Scanning Directory Content:: Get entries for user selected subset of
|
|
contents in given directory.
|
|
* Simple Directory Lister Mark II:: Revised version of the program.
|
|
|
|
File Attributes
|
|
|
|
* Attribute Meanings:: The names of the file attributes,
|
|
and what their values mean.
|
|
* Reading Attributes:: How to read the attributes of a file.
|
|
* Testing File Type:: Distinguishing ordinary files,
|
|
directories, links...
|
|
* File Owner:: How ownership for new files is determined,
|
|
and how to change it.
|
|
* Permission Bits:: How information about a file's access
|
|
mode is stored.
|
|
* Access Permission:: How the system decides who can access a file.
|
|
* Setting Permissions:: How permissions for new files are assigned,
|
|
and how to change them.
|
|
* Testing File Access:: How to find out if your process can
|
|
access a file.
|
|
* File Times:: About the time attributes of a file.
|
|
* File Size:: Manually changing the size of a file.
|
|
|
|
Pipes and FIFOs
|
|
|
|
* Creating a Pipe:: Making a pipe with the @code{pipe} function.
|
|
* Pipe to a Subprocess:: Using a pipe to communicate with a
|
|
child process.
|
|
* FIFO Special Files:: Making a FIFO special file.
|
|
* Pipe Atomicity:: When pipe (or FIFO) I/O is atomic.
|
|
|
|
Sockets
|
|
|
|
* Socket Concepts:: Basic concepts you need to know about.
|
|
* Communication Styles::Stream communication, datagrams, and other styles.
|
|
* Socket Addresses:: How socket names (``addresses'') work.
|
|
* Interface Naming:: Identifying specific network interfaces.
|
|
* Local Namespace:: Details about the local namespace.
|
|
* Internet Namespace:: Details about the Internet namespace.
|
|
* Misc Namespaces:: Other namespaces not documented fully here.
|
|
* Open/Close Sockets:: Creating sockets and destroying them.
|
|
* Connections:: Operations on sockets with connection state.
|
|
* Datagrams:: Operations on datagram sockets.
|
|
* Inetd:: Inetd is a daemon that starts servers on request.
|
|
The most convenient way to write a server
|
|
is to make it work with Inetd.
|
|
* Socket Options:: Miscellaneous low-level socket options.
|
|
* Networks Database:: Accessing the database of network names.
|
|
|
|
Socket Addresses
|
|
|
|
* Address Formats:: About @code{struct sockaddr}.
|
|
* Setting Address:: Binding an address to a socket.
|
|
* Reading Address:: Reading the address of a socket.
|
|
|
|
Local Namespace
|
|
|
|
* Concepts: Local Namespace Concepts. What you need to understand.
|
|
* Details: Local Namespace Details. Address format, symbolic names, etc.
|
|
* Example: Local Socket Example. Example of creating a socket.
|
|
|
|
Internet Namespace
|
|
|
|
* Internet Address Formats:: How socket addresses are specified in the
|
|
Internet namespace.
|
|
* Host Addresses:: All about host addresses of internet host.
|
|
* Protocols Database:: Referring to protocols by name.
|
|
* Ports:: Internet port numbers.
|
|
* Services Database:: Ports may have symbolic names.
|
|
* Byte Order:: Different hosts may use different byte
|
|
ordering conventions; you need to
|
|
canonicalize host address and port number.
|
|
* Inet Example:: Putting it all together.
|
|
|
|
Host Addresses
|
|
|
|
* Abstract Host Addresses:: What a host number consists of.
|
|
* Data type: Host Address Data Type. Data type for a host number.
|
|
* Functions: Host Address Functions. Functions to operate on them.
|
|
* Names: Host Names. Translating host names to host numbers.
|
|
|
|
Open/Close Sockets
|
|
|
|
* Creating a Socket:: How to open a socket.
|
|
* Closing a Socket:: How to close a socket.
|
|
* Socket Pairs:: These are created like pipes.
|
|
|
|
Connections
|
|
|
|
* Connecting:: What the client program must do.
|
|
* Listening:: How a server program waits for requests.
|
|
* Accepting Connections:: What the server does when it gets a request.
|
|
* Who is Connected:: Getting the address of the
|
|
other side of a connection.
|
|
* Transferring Data:: How to send and receive data.
|
|
* Byte Stream Example:: An example program: a client for communicating
|
|
over a byte stream socket in the Internet namespace.
|
|
* Server Example:: A corresponding server program.
|
|
* Out-of-Band Data:: This is an advanced feature.
|
|
|
|
Transferring Data
|
|
|
|
* Sending Data:: Sending data with @code{send}.
|
|
* Receiving Data:: Reading data with @code{recv}.
|
|
* Socket Data Options:: Using @code{send} and @code{recv}.
|
|
|
|
Datagrams
|
|
|
|
* Sending Datagrams:: Sending packets on a datagram socket.
|
|
* Receiving Datagrams:: Receiving packets on a datagram socket.
|
|
* Datagram Example:: An example program: packets sent over a
|
|
datagram socket in the local namespace.
|
|
* Example Receiver:: Another program, that receives those packets.
|
|
|
|
Inetd
|
|
|
|
* Inetd Servers::
|
|
* Configuring Inetd::
|
|
|
|
Socket Options
|
|
|
|
* Socket Option Functions:: The basic functions for setting and getting
|
|
socket options.
|
|
* Socket-Level Options:: Details of the options at the socket level.
|
|
|
|
Low-Level Terminal Interface
|
|
|
|
* Is It a Terminal:: How to determine if a file is a terminal
|
|
device, and what its name is.
|
|
* I/O Queues:: About flow control and typeahead.
|
|
* Canonical or Not:: Two basic styles of input processing.
|
|
* Terminal Modes:: How to examine and modify flags controlling
|
|
details of terminal I/O: echoing,
|
|
signals, editing.
|
|
* Line Control:: Sending break sequences, clearing
|
|
terminal buffers @dots{}
|
|
* Noncanon Example:: How to read single characters without echo.
|
|
* Pseudo-Terminals:: How to open a pseudo-terminal.
|
|
|
|
Terminal Modes
|
|
|
|
* Mode Data Types:: The data type @code{struct termios} and
|
|
related types.
|
|
* Mode Functions:: Functions to read and set the terminal
|
|
attributes.
|
|
* Setting Modes:: The right way to set terminal attributes
|
|
reliably.
|
|
* Input Modes:: Flags controlling low-level input handling.
|
|
* Output Modes:: Flags controlling low-level output handling.
|
|
* Control Modes:: Flags controlling serial port behavior.
|
|
* Local Modes:: Flags controlling high-level input handling.
|
|
* Line Speed:: How to read and set the terminal line speed.
|
|
* Special Characters:: Characters that have special effects,
|
|
and how to change them.
|
|
* Noncanonical Input:: Controlling how long to wait for input.
|
|
|
|
Special Characters
|
|
|
|
* Editing Characters:: Special characters that terminate lines and
|
|
delete text, and other editing functions.
|
|
* Signal Characters:: Special characters that send or raise signals
|
|
to or for certain classes of processes.
|
|
* Start/Stop Characters:: Special characters that suspend or resume
|
|
suspended output.
|
|
* Other Special:: Other special characters for BSD systems:
|
|
they can discard output, and print status.
|
|
|
|
Pseudo-Terminals
|
|
|
|
* Allocation:: Allocating a pseudo terminal.
|
|
* Pseudo-Terminal Pairs:: How to open both sides of a
|
|
pseudo-terminal in a single operation.
|
|
|
|
Mathematics
|
|
|
|
* Mathematical Constants:: Precise numeric values for often-used
|
|
constants.
|
|
* Trig Functions:: Sine, cosine, tangent, and friends.
|
|
* Inverse Trig Functions:: Arcsine, arccosine, etc.
|
|
* Exponents and Logarithms:: Also pow and sqrt.
|
|
* Hyperbolic Functions:: sinh, cosh, tanh, etc.
|
|
* Special Functions:: Bessel, gamma, erf.
|
|
* Pseudo-Random Numbers:: Functions for generating pseudo-random
|
|
numbers.
|
|
* FP Function Optimizations:: Fast code or small code.
|
|
|
|
Pseudo-Random Numbers
|
|
|
|
* ISO Random:: @code{rand} and friends.
|
|
* BSD Random:: @code{random} and friends.
|
|
* SVID Random:: @code{drand48} and friends.
|
|
|
|
Arithmetic
|
|
|
|
* Floating Point Numbers:: Basic concepts. IEEE 754.
|
|
* Floating Point Classes:: The five kinds of floating-point number.
|
|
* Floating Point Errors:: When something goes wrong in a calculation.
|
|
* Rounding:: Controlling how results are rounded.
|
|
* Control Functions:: Saving and restoring the FPU's state.
|
|
* Arithmetic Functions:: Fundamental operations provided by the library.
|
|
* Complex Numbers:: The types. Writing complex constants.
|
|
* Operations on Complex:: Projection, conjugation, decomposition.
|
|
* Integer Division:: Integer division with guaranteed rounding.
|
|
* Parsing of Numbers:: Converting strings to numbers.
|
|
* System V Number Conversion:: An archaic way to convert numbers to strings.
|
|
|
|
Floating Point Errors
|
|
|
|
* FP Exceptions:: IEEE 754 math exceptions and how to detect them.
|
|
* Infinity and NaN:: Special values returned by calculations.
|
|
* Status bit operations:: Checking for exceptions after the fact.
|
|
* Math Error Reporting:: How the math functions report errors.
|
|
|
|
Arithmetic Functions
|
|
|
|
* Absolute Value:: Absolute values of integers and floats.
|
|
* Normalization Functions:: Extracting exponents and putting them back.
|
|
* Rounding Functions:: Rounding floats to integers.
|
|
* Remainder Functions:: Remainders on division, precisely defined.
|
|
* FP Bit Twiddling:: Sign bit adjustment. Adding epsilon.
|
|
* FP Comparison Functions:: Comparisons without risk of exceptions.
|
|
* Misc FP Arithmetic:: Max, min, positive difference, multiply-add.
|
|
|
|
Parsing of Numbers
|
|
|
|
* Parsing of Integers:: Functions for conversion of integer values.
|
|
* Parsing of Floats:: Functions for conversion of floating-point
|
|
values.
|
|
|
|
Date and Time
|
|
|
|
* Processor Time:: Measures processor time used by a program.
|
|
* Calendar Time:: Manipulation of ``real'' dates and times.
|
|
* Setting an Alarm:: Sending a signal after a specified time.
|
|
* Sleeping:: Waiting for a period of time.
|
|
* Resource Usage:: Measuring various resources used.
|
|
* Limits on Resources:: Specifying limits on resource usage.
|
|
* Priority:: Reading or setting process run priority.
|
|
|
|
Processor Time
|
|
|
|
* Basic CPU Time:: The @code{clock} function.
|
|
* Detailed CPU Time:: The @code{times} function.
|
|
|
|
Calendar Time
|
|
|
|
* Simple Calendar Time:: Facilities for manipulating calendar time.
|
|
* High-Resolution Calendar:: A time representation with greater precision.
|
|
* Broken-down Time:: Facilities for manipulating local time.
|
|
* Formatting Date and Time:: Converting times to strings.
|
|
* TZ Variable:: How users specify the time zone.
|
|
* Time Zone Functions:: Functions to examine or specify the time zone.
|
|
* Time Functions Example:: An example program showing use of some of
|
|
the time functions.
|
|
|
|
Non-Local Exits
|
|
|
|
* Intro: Non-Local Intro. When and how to use these facilities.
|
|
* Details: Non-Local Details. Functions for nonlocal exits.
|
|
* Non-Local Exits and Signals:: Portability issues.
|
|
|
|
Signal Handling
|
|
|
|
* Concepts of Signals:: Introduction to the signal facilities.
|
|
* Standard Signals:: Particular kinds of signals with
|
|
standard names and meanings.
|
|
* Signal Actions:: Specifying what happens when a
|
|
particular signal is delivered.
|
|
* Defining Handlers:: How to write a signal handler function.
|
|
* Interrupted Primitives:: Signal handlers affect use of @code{open},
|
|
@code{read}, @code{write} and other functions.
|
|
* Generating Signals:: How to send a signal to a process.
|
|
* Blocking Signals:: Making the system hold signals temporarily.
|
|
* Waiting for a Signal:: Suspending your program until a signal
|
|
arrives.
|
|
* Signal Stack:: Using a Separate Signal Stack.
|
|
* BSD Signal Handling:: Additional functions for backward
|
|
compatibility with BSD.
|
|
|
|
Concepts of Signals
|
|
|
|
* Kinds of Signals:: Some examples of what can cause a signal.
|
|
* Signal Generation:: Concepts of why and how signals occur.
|
|
* Delivery of Signal:: Concepts of what a signal does to the
|
|
process.
|
|
|
|
Standard Signals
|
|
|
|
* Program Error Signals:: Used to report serious program errors.
|
|
* Termination Signals:: Used to interrupt and/or terminate the
|
|
program.
|
|
* Alarm Signals:: Used to indicate expiration of timers.
|
|
* Asynchronous I/O Signals:: Used to indicate input is available.
|
|
* Job Control Signals:: Signals used to support job control.
|
|
* Operation Error Signals:: Used to report operational system errors.
|
|
* Miscellaneous Signals:: Miscellaneous Signals.
|
|
* Signal Messages:: Printing a message describing a signal.
|
|
|
|
Signal Actions
|
|
|
|
* Basic Signal Handling:: The simple @code{signal} function.
|
|
* Advanced Signal Handling:: The more powerful @code{sigaction} function.
|
|
* Signal and Sigaction:: How those two functions interact.
|
|
* Sigaction Function Example:: An example of using the sigaction function.
|
|
* Flags for Sigaction:: Specifying options for signal handling.
|
|
* Initial Signal Actions:: How programs inherit signal actions.
|
|
|
|
Defining Handlers
|
|
|
|
* Handler Returns:: Handlers that return normally, and what
|
|
this means.
|
|
* Termination in Handler:: How handler functions terminate a program.
|
|
* Longjmp in Handler:: Nonlocal transfer of control out of a
|
|
signal handler.
|
|
* Signals in Handler:: What happens when signals arrive while
|
|
the handler is already occupied.
|
|
* Merged Signals:: When a second signal arrives before the
|
|
first is handled.
|
|
* Nonreentrancy:: Do not call any functions unless you know they
|
|
are reentrant with respect to signals.
|
|
* Atomic Data Access:: A single handler can run in the middle of
|
|
reading or writing a single object.
|
|
|
|
Atomic Data Access
|
|
|
|
* Non-atomic Example:: A program illustrating interrupted access.
|
|
* Types: Atomic Types. Data types that guarantee no interruption.
|
|
* Usage: Atomic Usage. Proving that interruption is harmless.
|
|
|
|
Generating Signals
|
|
|
|
* Signaling Yourself:: A process can send a signal to itself.
|
|
* Signaling Another Process:: Send a signal to another process.
|
|
* Permission for kill:: Permission for using @code{kill}.
|
|
* Kill Example:: Using @code{kill} for Communication.
|
|
|
|
Blocking Signals
|
|
|
|
* Why Block:: The purpose of blocking signals.
|
|
* Signal Sets:: How to specify which signals to
|
|
block.
|
|
* Process Signal Mask:: Blocking delivery of signals to your
|
|
process during normal execution.
|
|
* Testing for Delivery:: Blocking to Test for Delivery of
|
|
a Signal.
|
|
* Blocking for Handler:: Blocking additional signals while a
|
|
handler is being run.
|
|
* Checking for Pending Signals:: Checking for Pending Signals
|
|
* Remembering a Signal:: How you can get almost the same
|
|
effect as blocking a signal, by
|
|
handling it and setting a flag
|
|
to be tested later.
|
|
|
|
Waiting for a Signal
|
|
|
|
* Using Pause:: The simple way, using @code{pause}.
|
|
* Pause Problems:: Why the simple way is often not very good.
|
|
* Sigsuspend:: Reliably waiting for a specific signal.
|
|
|
|
BSD Signal Handling
|
|
|
|
* BSD Handler:: BSD Function to Establish a Handler.
|
|
* Blocking in BSD:: BSD Functions for Blocking Signals.
|
|
|
|
Process Startup
|
|
|
|
* Program Arguments:: Parsing your program's command-line arguments.
|
|
* Environment Variables:: How to access parameters inherited from
|
|
a parent process.
|
|
* Program Termination:: How to cause a process to terminate and
|
|
return status information to its parent.
|
|
|
|
Program Arguments
|
|
|
|
* Argument Syntax:: By convention, options start with a hyphen.
|
|
* Parsing Program Arguments:: Ways to parse program options and arguments.
|
|
|
|
Parsing Program Arguments
|
|
|
|
* Getopt:: Parsing program options using @code{getopt}.
|
|
* Argp:: Parsing program options using @code{argp_parse}.
|
|
* Suboptions:: Some programs need more detailed options.
|
|
* Suboptions Example:: This shows how it could be done for @code{mount}.
|
|
|
|
Environment Variables
|
|
|
|
* Environment Access:: How to get and set the values of
|
|
environment variables.
|
|
* Standard Environment:: These environment variables have
|
|
standard interpretations.
|
|
|
|
Program Termination
|
|
|
|
* Normal Termination:: If a program calls @code{exit}, a
|
|
process terminates normally.
|
|
* Exit Status:: The @code{exit status} provides information
|
|
about why the process terminated.
|
|
* Cleanups on Exit:: A process can run its own cleanup
|
|
functions upon normal termination.
|
|
* Aborting a Program:: The @code{abort} function causes
|
|
abnormal program termination.
|
|
* Termination Internals:: What happens when a process terminates.
|
|
|
|
Processes
|
|
|
|
* Running a Command:: The easy way to run another program.
|
|
* Process Creation Concepts:: An overview of the hard way to do it.
|
|
* Process Identification:: How to get the process ID of a process.
|
|
* Creating a Process:: How to fork a child process.
|
|
* Executing a File:: How to make a process execute another program.
|
|
* Process Completion:: How to tell when a child process has completed.
|
|
* Process Completion Status:: How to interpret the status value
|
|
returned from a child process.
|
|
* BSD Wait Functions:: More functions, for backward compatibility.
|
|
* Process Creation Example:: A complete example program.
|
|
|
|
Job Control
|
|
|
|
* Concepts of Job Control:: Jobs can be controlled by a shell.
|
|
* Job Control is Optional:: Not all POSIX systems support job control.
|
|
* Controlling Terminal:: How a process gets its controlling terminal.
|
|
* Access to the Terminal:: How processes share the controlling terminal.
|
|
* Orphaned Process Groups:: Jobs left after the user logs out.
|
|
* Implementing a Shell:: What a shell must do to implement job control.
|
|
* Functions for Job Control:: Functions to control process groups.
|
|
|
|
Implementing a Shell
|
|
|
|
* Data Structures:: Introduction to the sample shell.
|
|
* Initializing the Shell:: What the shell must do to take
|
|
responsibility for job control.
|
|
* Launching Jobs:: Creating jobs to execute commands.
|
|
* Foreground and Background:: Putting a job in foreground of background.
|
|
* Stopped and Terminated Jobs:: Reporting job status.
|
|
* Continuing Stopped Jobs:: How to continue a stopped job in
|
|
the foreground or background.
|
|
* Missing Pieces:: Other parts of the shell.
|
|
|
|
Functions for Job Control
|
|
|
|
* Identifying the Terminal:: Determining the controlling terminal's name.
|
|
* Process Group Functions:: Functions for manipulating process groups.
|
|
* Terminal Access Functions:: Functions for controlling terminal access.
|
|
|
|
Name Service Switch
|
|
|
|
* NSS Basics:: What is this NSS good for.
|
|
* NSS Configuration File:: Configuring NSS.
|
|
* NSS Module Internals:: How does it work internally.
|
|
* Extending NSS:: What to do to add services or databases.
|
|
|
|
NSS Configuration File
|
|
|
|
* Services in the NSS configuration:: Service names in the NSS configuration.
|
|
* Actions in the NSS configuration:: React appropriately to the lookup result.
|
|
* Notes on NSS Configuration File:: Things to take care about while
|
|
configuring NSS.
|
|
|
|
NSS Module Internals
|
|
|
|
* NSS Module Names:: Construction of the interface function of
|
|
the NSS modules.
|
|
* NSS Modules Interface:: Programming interface in the NSS module
|
|
functions.
|
|
|
|
Extending NSS
|
|
|
|
* Adding another Service to NSS:: What is to do to add a new service.
|
|
* NSS Module Function Internals:: Guidelines for writing new NSS
|
|
service functions.
|
|
|
|
Users and Groups
|
|
|
|
* User and Group IDs:: Each user has a unique numeric ID;
|
|
likewise for groups.
|
|
* Process Persona:: The user IDs and group IDs of a process.
|
|
* Why Change Persona:: Why a program might need to change
|
|
its user and/or group IDs.
|
|
* How Change Persona:: Changing the user and group IDs.
|
|
* Reading Persona:: How to examine the user and group IDs.
|
|
|
|
* Setting User ID:: Functions for setting the user ID.
|
|
* Setting Groups:: Functions for setting the group IDs.
|
|
|
|
* Enable/Disable Setuid:: Turning setuid access on and off.
|
|
* Setuid Program Example:: The pertinent parts of one sample program.
|
|
* Tips for Setuid:: How to avoid granting unlimited access.
|
|
|
|
* Who Logged In:: Getting the name of the user who logged in,
|
|
or of the real user ID of the current process.
|
|
|
|
* User Accounting Database:: Keeping information about users and various
|
|
actions in databases.
|
|
|
|
* User Database:: Functions and data structures for
|
|
accessing the user database.
|
|
* Group Database:: Functions and data structures for
|
|
accessing the group database.
|
|
* Database Example:: Example program showing the use of database
|
|
inquiry functions.
|
|
* Netgroup Database:: Functions for accessing the netgroup database.
|
|
|
|
User Accounting Database
|
|
|
|
* Manipulating the Database:: Scanning and modifying the user
|
|
accounting database.
|
|
* XPG Functions:: A standardized way for doing the same thing.
|
|
* Logging In and Out:: Functions from BSD that modify the user
|
|
accounting database.
|
|
|
|
User Database
|
|
|
|
* User Data Structure:: What each user record contains.
|
|
* Lookup User:: How to look for a particular user.
|
|
* Scanning All Users:: Scanning the list of all users, one by one.
|
|
* Writing a User Entry:: How a program can rewrite a user's record.
|
|
|
|
Group Database
|
|
|
|
* Group Data Structure:: What each group record contains.
|
|
* Lookup Group:: How to look for a particular group.
|
|
* Scanning All Groups:: Scanning the list of all groups.
|
|
|
|
Netgroup Database
|
|
|
|
* Netgroup Data:: Data in the Netgroup database and where
|
|
it comes from.
|
|
* Lookup Netgroup:: How to look for a particular netgroup.
|
|
* Netgroup Membership:: How to test for netgroup membership.
|
|
|
|
System Information
|
|
|
|
* Host Identification:: Determining the name of the machine.
|
|
* Hardware/Software Type ID:: Determining the hardware type of the
|
|
machine and what operating system it is
|
|
running.
|
|
* Filesystem handling:: Which is mounted and/or available?
|
|
|
|
System Configuration
|
|
|
|
* General Limits:: Constants and functions that describe
|
|
various process-related limits that have
|
|
one uniform value for any given machine.
|
|
* System Options:: Optional POSIX features.
|
|
* Version Supported:: Version numbers of POSIX.1 and POSIX.2.
|
|
* Sysconf:: Getting specific configuration values
|
|
of general limits and system options.
|
|
* Minimums:: Minimum values for general limits.
|
|
|
|
* Limits for Files:: Size limitations that pertain to individual files.
|
|
These can vary between file systems
|
|
or even from file to file.
|
|
* Options for Files:: Optional features that some files may support.
|
|
* File Minimums:: Minimum values for file limits.
|
|
* Pathconf:: Getting the limit values for a particular file.
|
|
|
|
* Utility Limits:: Capacity limits of some POSIX.2 utility programs.
|
|
* Utility Minimums:: Minimum allowable values of those limits.
|
|
|
|
* String Parameters:: Getting the default search path.
|
|
|
|
Sysconf
|
|
|
|
* Sysconf Definition:: Detailed specifications of @code{sysconf}.
|
|
* Constants for Sysconf:: The list of parameters @code{sysconf} can read.
|
|
* Examples of Sysconf:: How to use @code{sysconf} and the parameter
|
|
macros properly together.
|
|
|
|
POSIX Threads
|
|
|
|
* Basic Thread Operations:: Creating, terminating, and waiting for threads.
|
|
* Thread Attributes:: Tuning thread scheduling.
|
|
* Cancellation:: Stopping a thread before it's done.
|
|
* Cleanup Handlers:: Deallocating resources when a thread is
|
|
cancelled.
|
|
* Mutexes:: One way to synchronize threads.
|
|
* Condition Variables:: Another way.
|
|
* POSIX Semaphores:: And a third way.
|
|
* Thread-Specific Data:: Variables with different values in
|
|
different threads.
|
|
* Threads and Signal Handling:: Why you should avoid mixing the two, and
|
|
how to do it if you must.
|
|
* Miscellaneous Thread Functions:: A grab bag of utility routines.
|
|
|
|
Language Features
|
|
|
|
* Consistency Checking:: Using @code{assert} to abort if
|
|
something ``impossible'' happens.
|
|
* Variadic Functions:: Defining functions with varying numbers
|
|
of args.
|
|
* Null Pointer Constant:: The macro @code{NULL}.
|
|
* Important Data Types:: Data types for object sizes.
|
|
* Data Type Measurements:: Parameters of data type representations.
|
|
|
|
Variadic Functions
|
|
|
|
* Why Variadic:: Reasons for making functions take
|
|
variable arguments.
|
|
* How Variadic:: How to define and call variadic functions.
|
|
* Variadic Example:: A complete example.
|
|
|
|
How Variadic
|
|
|
|
* Variadic Prototypes:: How to make a prototype for a function
|
|
with variable arguments.
|
|
* Receiving Arguments:: Steps you must follow to access the
|
|
optional argument values.
|
|
* How Many Arguments:: How to decide whether there are more arguments.
|
|
* Calling Variadics:: Things you need to know about calling
|
|
variable arguments functions.
|
|
* Argument Macros:: Detailed specification of the macros
|
|
for accessing variable arguments.
|
|
* Old Varargs:: The pre-ISO way of defining variadic functions.
|
|
|
|
Data Type Measurements
|
|
|
|
* Width of Type:: How many bits does an integer type hold?
|
|
* Range of Type:: What are the largest and smallest values
|
|
that an integer type can hold?
|
|
* Floating Type Macros:: Parameters that measure the floating point types.
|
|
* Structure Measurement:: Getting measurements on structure types.
|
|
|
|
Floating Type Macros
|
|
|
|
* Floating Point Concepts:: Definitions of terminology.
|
|
* Floating Point Parameters:: Details of specific macros.
|
|
* IEEE Floating Point:: The measurements for one common
|
|
representation.
|
|
|
|
Installation
|
|
|
|
* Tools for Installation:: We recommend using these tools to build.
|
|
* Supported Configurations:: What systems the GNU C library runs on.
|
|
* Tips for Installation:: Useful hints for the installation.
|
|
* Reporting Bugs:: How to report bugs (if you want to
|
|
get them fixed) and other troubles
|
|
you may have with the GNU C library.
|
|
|
|
Maintenance
|
|
|
|
* Source Layout:: How to add new functions or header files
|
|
to the GNU C library.
|
|
* Porting:: How to port the GNU C library to
|
|
a new machine or operating system.
|
|
|
|
Porting
|
|
|
|
* Hierarchy Conventions:: The layout of the @file{sysdeps} hierarchy.
|
|
* Porting to Unix:: Porting the library to an average
|
|
Unix-like system.
|
|
@end menu
|