diff --git a/demos/node-editor/node-editor-window.c b/demos/node-editor/node-editor-window.c
index 4a22a0b9d8..995d2969f6 100644
--- a/demos/node-editor/node-editor-window.c
+++ b/demos/node-editor/node-editor-window.c
@@ -646,7 +646,6 @@ create_cairo_texture (NodeEditorWindow *self)
   GskRenderer *renderer;
   GskRenderNode *node;
   GdkTexture *texture;
-  GdkSurface *surface;
 
   paintable = gtk_picture_get_paintable (GTK_PICTURE (self->picture));
   if (paintable == NULL ||
@@ -659,9 +658,8 @@ create_cairo_texture (NodeEditorWindow *self)
   if (node == NULL)
     return NULL;
 
-  surface = gtk_native_get_surface (gtk_widget_get_native (GTK_WIDGET (self)));
   renderer = gsk_cairo_renderer_new ();
-  gsk_renderer_realize (renderer, surface, NULL);
+  gsk_renderer_realize (renderer, NULL, NULL);
 
   texture = gsk_renderer_render_texture (renderer, node, NULL);
   gsk_render_node_unref (node);
@@ -839,16 +837,18 @@ node_editor_window_add_renderer (NodeEditorWindow *self,
                                  GskRenderer      *renderer,
                                  const char       *description)
 {
-  GdkSurface *surface;
   GdkPaintable *paintable;
 
-  surface = gtk_native_get_surface (GTK_NATIVE (self));
-  g_assert (surface != NULL);
-
-  if (renderer != NULL && !gsk_renderer_realize (renderer, surface, NULL))
+  if (!gsk_renderer_realize (renderer, NULL, NULL))
     {
-      g_object_unref (renderer);
-      return;
+      GdkSurface *surface = gtk_native_get_surface (GTK_NATIVE (self));
+      g_assert (surface != NULL);
+
+      if (!gsk_renderer_realize (renderer, surface, NULL))
+        {
+          g_object_unref (renderer);
+          return;
+        }
     }
 
   paintable = gtk_renderer_paintable_new (renderer, gtk_picture_get_paintable (GTK_PICTURE (self->picture)));
diff --git a/gdk/gdkdisplay.c b/gdk/gdkdisplay.c
index 075342a26b..d5defbeb82 100644
--- a/gdk/gdkdisplay.c
+++ b/gdk/gdkdisplay.c
@@ -1325,6 +1325,38 @@ gdk_display_prepare_gl (GdkDisplay  *self,
     }
 }
 
+/**
+ * gdk_display_create_gl_context:
+ * @self: a `GdkDisplay`
+ * @error: return location for an error
+ *
+ * Creates a new `GdkGLContext` for the `GdkDisplay`.
+ *
+ * The context is disconnected from any particular surface or surface
+ * and cannot be used to draw to any surface. It can only be used to
+ * draw to non-surface framebuffers like textures.
+ *
+ * If the creation of the `GdkGLContext` failed, @error will be set.
+ * Before using the returned `GdkGLContext`, you will need to
+ * call [method@Gdk.GLContext.make_current] or [method@Gdk.GLContext.realize].
+ *
+ * Returns: (transfer full) (nullable): the newly created `GdkGLContext`
+ *
+ * Since: 4.6
+ */
+GdkGLContext *
+gdk_display_create_gl_context (GdkDisplay  *self,
+                               GError     **error)
+{
+  g_return_val_if_fail (GDK_IS_DISPLAY (self), NULL);
+  g_return_val_if_fail (error == NULL || *error == NULL, NULL);
+
+  if (!gdk_display_prepare_gl (self, error))
+    return NULL;
+
+  return gdk_gl_context_new (self, NULL);
+}
+
 /*< private >
  * gdk_display_get_gl_context:
  * @self: the `GdkDisplay`
diff --git a/gdk/gdkdisplay.h b/gdk/gdkdisplay.h
index 9fabac6b50..52aa502247 100644
--- a/gdk/gdkdisplay.h
+++ b/gdk/gdkdisplay.h
@@ -71,6 +71,9 @@ gboolean    gdk_display_supports_input_shapes (GdkDisplay    *display);
 GDK_AVAILABLE_IN_4_4
 gboolean    gdk_display_prepare_gl         (GdkDisplay  *self,
                                             GError     **error);
+GDK_AVAILABLE_IN_4_6
+GdkGLContext *gdk_display_create_gl_context(GdkDisplay  *self,
+                                            GError     **error);
 
 GDK_AVAILABLE_IN_ALL
 GdkDisplay *gdk_display_get_default (void);
diff --git a/gdk/gdkdrawcontext.c b/gdk/gdkdrawcontext.c
index b51e1139dd..8ab405e25b 100644
--- a/gdk/gdkdrawcontext.c
+++ b/gdk/gdkdrawcontext.c
@@ -276,7 +276,8 @@ gdk_draw_context_get_surface (GdkDrawContext *context)
 
 /**
  * gdk_draw_context_begin_frame:
- * @context: the `GdkDrawContext` used to draw the frame
+ * @context: the `GdkDrawContext` used to draw the frame. The context must
+ *   have a surface.
  * @region: minimum region that should be drawn
  *
  * Indicates that you are beginning the process of redrawing @region
@@ -308,7 +309,10 @@ void
 gdk_draw_context_begin_frame (GdkDrawContext       *context,
                               const cairo_region_t *region)
 {
+  GdkDrawContextPrivate *priv = gdk_draw_context_get_instance_private (context);
+
   g_return_if_fail (GDK_IS_DRAW_CONTEXT (context));
+  g_return_if_fail (priv->surface != NULL);
   g_return_if_fail (region != NULL);
 
   gdk_draw_context_begin_frame_full (context, FALSE, region);
@@ -411,6 +415,7 @@ gdk_draw_context_end_frame (GdkDrawContext *context)
   GdkDrawContextPrivate *priv = gdk_draw_context_get_instance_private (context);
 
   g_return_if_fail (GDK_IS_DRAW_CONTEXT (context));
+  g_return_if_fail (priv->surface != NULL);
 
   if (GDK_SURFACE_DESTROYED (priv->surface))
     return;
diff --git a/gdk/gdkglcontext.c b/gdk/gdkglcontext.c
index 812a3cd9d8..422e0a189e 100644
--- a/gdk/gdkglcontext.c
+++ b/gdk/gdkglcontext.c
@@ -722,15 +722,19 @@ gdk_gl_context_init (GdkGLContext *self)
 
 /* Must have called gdk_display_prepare_gl() before */
 GdkGLContext *
-gdk_gl_context_new_for_surface (GdkSurface *surface)
+gdk_gl_context_new (GdkDisplay *display,
+                    GdkSurface *surface)
 {
-  GdkDisplay *display = gdk_surface_get_display (surface);
-  GdkGLContext *shared = gdk_display_get_gl_context (display);
+  GdkGLContext *shared;
+
+  g_assert (surface == NULL || display == gdk_surface_get_display (surface));
 
   /* assert gdk_display_prepare_gl() had been called */
+  shared = gdk_display_get_gl_context (display);
   g_assert (shared);
 
   return g_object_new (G_OBJECT_TYPE (shared),
+                       "display", display,
                        "surface", surface,
                        NULL);
 }
diff --git a/gdk/gdkglcontextprivate.h b/gdk/gdkglcontextprivate.h
index 56fe04f903..e07420f1c1 100644
--- a/gdk/gdkglcontextprivate.h
+++ b/gdk/gdkglcontextprivate.h
@@ -99,7 +99,8 @@ gboolean                gdk_gl_backend_can_be_used              (GdkGLBackend
                                                                  GError         **error);
 void                    gdk_gl_backend_use                      (GdkGLBackend     backend_type);
 
-GdkGLContext *          gdk_gl_context_new_for_surface          (GdkSurface      *surface);
+GdkGLContext *          gdk_gl_context_new                      (GdkDisplay      *display,
+                                                                 GdkSurface      *surface);
 
 gboolean                gdk_gl_context_is_api_allowed           (GdkGLContext    *self,
                                                                  GdkGLAPI         api,
diff --git a/gdk/gdksurface.c b/gdk/gdksurface.c
index 40d9c21b8f..5b0c947ed3 100644
--- a/gdk/gdksurface.c
+++ b/gdk/gdksurface.c
@@ -1171,7 +1171,7 @@ gdk_surface_get_paint_gl_context (GdkSurface  *surface,
  * Before using the returned `GdkGLContext`, you will need to
  * call [method@Gdk.GLContext.make_current] or [method@Gdk.GLContext.realize].
  *
- * Returns: (transfer full) (nullable): the newly created `GdkGLContext`
+ * Returns: (transfer full): the newly created `GdkGLContext`
  */
 GdkGLContext *
 gdk_surface_create_gl_context (GdkSurface   *surface,
@@ -1183,7 +1183,7 @@ gdk_surface_create_gl_context (GdkSurface   *surface,
   if (!gdk_display_prepare_gl (surface->display, error))
     return NULL;
 
-  return gdk_gl_context_new_for_surface (surface);
+  return gdk_gl_context_new (surface->display, surface);
 }
 
 /**
diff --git a/gsk/gl/gskglrenderer.c b/gsk/gl/gskglrenderer.c
index 0b1e9eddda..b222e2b07a 100644
--- a/gsk/gl/gskglrenderer.c
+++ b/gsk/gl/gskglrenderer.c
@@ -90,12 +90,10 @@ gsk_gl_renderer_realize (GskRenderer  *renderer,
   GskGLRenderer *self = (GskGLRenderer *)renderer;
   GdkGLContext *context = NULL;
   GskGLDriver *driver = NULL;
+  GdkDisplay *display;
   gboolean ret = FALSE;
   gboolean debug_shaders = FALSE;
 
-  g_assert (GSK_IS_GL_RENDERER (self));
-  g_assert (GDK_IS_SURFACE (surface));
-
   if (self->context != NULL)
     return TRUE;
 
@@ -103,8 +101,18 @@ gsk_gl_renderer_realize (GskRenderer  *renderer,
   g_assert (self->context == NULL);
   g_assert (self->command_queue == NULL);
 
-  if (!(context = gdk_surface_create_gl_context (surface, error)) ||
-      !gdk_gl_context_realize (context, error))
+  if (surface == NULL)
+    {
+      display = gdk_display_get_default (); /* FIXME: allow different displays somehow ? */
+      context = gdk_display_create_gl_context (display, error);
+    }
+  else
+    {
+      display = gdk_surface_get_display (surface);
+      context = gdk_surface_create_gl_context (surface, error);
+    }
+
+  if (!context || !gdk_gl_context_realize (context, error))
     goto failure;
 
 #ifdef G_ENABLE_DEBUG
@@ -112,7 +120,7 @@ gsk_gl_renderer_realize (GskRenderer  *renderer,
     debug_shaders = TRUE;
 #endif
 
-  if (!(driver = gsk_gl_driver_for_display (gdk_surface_get_display (surface), debug_shaders, error)))
+  if (!(driver = gsk_gl_driver_for_display (display, debug_shaders, error)))
     goto failure;
 
   self->command_queue = gsk_gl_driver_create_command_queue (driver, context);
diff --git a/gsk/gskcairorenderer.c b/gsk/gskcairorenderer.c
index 074b54b97f..3135acfdb1 100644
--- a/gsk/gskcairorenderer.c
+++ b/gsk/gskcairorenderer.c
@@ -59,7 +59,8 @@ gsk_cairo_renderer_realize (GskRenderer  *renderer,
 {
   GskCairoRenderer *self = GSK_CAIRO_RENDERER (renderer);
 
-  self->cairo_context = gdk_surface_create_cairo_context (surface);
+  if (surface)
+    self->cairo_context = gdk_surface_create_cairo_context (surface);
 
   return TRUE;
 }
diff --git a/gsk/gskrenderer.c b/gsk/gskrenderer.c
index 7c35b051f9..ff4ff976ce 100644
--- a/gsk/gskrenderer.c
+++ b/gsk/gskrenderer.c
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ static GParamSpec *gsk_renderer_properties[N_PROPS];
 
 static gboolean
 gsk_renderer_real_realize (GskRenderer  *self,
-                           GdkSurface    *surface,
+                           GdkSurface   *surface,
                            GError      **error)
 {
   GSK_RENDERER_WARN_NOT_IMPLEMENTED_METHOD (self, realize);
@@ -189,12 +189,12 @@ gsk_renderer_class_init (GskRendererClass *klass)
   /**
    * GskRenderer:realized: (attributes org.gtk.Property.get=gsk_renderer_is_realized)
    *
-   * Whether the renderer has been associated with a surface.
+   * Whether the renderer has been associated with a surface or draw context.
    */
   gsk_renderer_properties[PROP_REALIZED] =
     g_param_spec_boolean ("realized",
                           "Realized",
-                          "The renderer has been associated with a surface",
+                          "The renderer has been associated with a surface or draw context",
                           FALSE,
                           G_PARAM_READABLE | G_PARAM_EXPLICIT_NOTIFY | G_PARAM_STATIC_STRINGS);
 
@@ -281,11 +281,14 @@ gsk_renderer_is_realized (GskRenderer *renderer)
 /**
  * gsk_renderer_realize:
  * @renderer: a `GskRenderer`
- * @surface: the `GdkSurface` renderer will be used on
+ * @surface: (nullable): the `GdkSurface` renderer will be used on
  * @error: return location for an error
  *
  * Creates the resources needed by the @renderer to render the scene
  * graph.
+ *
+ * Since GTK 4.6, the surface may be `NULL`, which allows using
+ * renderers without having to create a surface.
  */
 gboolean
 gsk_renderer_realize (GskRenderer  *renderer,
@@ -296,10 +299,11 @@ gsk_renderer_realize (GskRenderer  *renderer,
 
   g_return_val_if_fail (GSK_IS_RENDERER (renderer), FALSE);
   g_return_val_if_fail (!gsk_renderer_is_realized (renderer), FALSE);
-  g_return_val_if_fail (GDK_IS_SURFACE (surface), FALSE);
+  g_return_val_if_fail (surface == NULL || GDK_IS_SURFACE (surface), FALSE);
   g_return_val_if_fail (error == NULL || *error == NULL, FALSE);
 
-  priv->surface = g_object_ref (surface);
+  if (surface)
+    priv->surface = g_object_ref (surface);
 
   if (!GSK_RENDERER_GET_CLASS (renderer)->realize (renderer, surface, error))
     {
@@ -399,13 +403,15 @@ gsk_renderer_render_texture (GskRenderer           *renderer,
 
 /**
  * gsk_renderer_render:
- * @renderer: a `GskRenderer`
+ * @renderer: a realized `GskRenderer`
  * @root: a `GskRenderNode`
  * @region: (nullable): the `cairo_region_t` that must be redrawn or %NULL
  *   for the whole window
  *
- * Renders the scene graph, described by a tree of `GskRenderNode` instances,
- * ensuring that the given @region gets redrawn.
+ * Renders the scene graph, described by a tree of `GskRenderNode` instances
+ * to the renderer's surface,  ensuring that the given @region gets redrawn.
+ *
+ * If the renderer has no associated surface, this function does nothing.
  *
  * Renderers must ensure that changes of the contents given by the @root
  * node as well as the area given by @region are redrawn. They are however
@@ -428,6 +434,9 @@ gsk_renderer_render (GskRenderer          *renderer,
   g_return_if_fail (GSK_IS_RENDER_NODE (root));
   g_return_if_fail (priv->root_node == NULL);
 
+  if (priv->surface == NULL)
+    return;
+
   if (region == NULL || priv->prev_node == NULL || GSK_RENDERER_DEBUG_CHECK (renderer, FULL_REDRAW))
     {
       clip = cairo_region_create_rectangle (&(GdkRectangle) {
diff --git a/gsk/vulkan/gskvulkanrenderer.c b/gsk/vulkan/gskvulkanrenderer.c
index c91b14a384..86f7984805 100644
--- a/gsk/vulkan/gskvulkanrenderer.c
+++ b/gsk/vulkan/gskvulkanrenderer.c
@@ -114,12 +114,19 @@ gsk_vulkan_renderer_update_images_cb (GdkVulkanContext  *context,
 
 static gboolean
 gsk_vulkan_renderer_realize (GskRenderer  *renderer,
-                             GdkSurface    *window,
+                             GdkSurface   *surface,
                              GError      **error)
 {
   GskVulkanRenderer *self = GSK_VULKAN_RENDERER (renderer);
 
-  self->vulkan = gdk_surface_create_vulkan_context (window, error);
+  if (surface == NULL)
+    {
+      g_set_error (error, GDK_VULKAN_ERROR, GDK_VULKAN_ERROR_UNSUPPORTED,
+                   "The Vulkan renderer does not support surfaceless rendering yet.");
+      return FALSE;
+    }
+
+  self->vulkan = gdk_surface_create_vulkan_context (surface, error);
   if (self->vulkan == NULL)
     return FALSE;
 
diff --git a/testsuite/gdk/memorytexture.c b/testsuite/gdk/memorytexture.c
index 03f8634c3f..712ff951cb 100644
--- a/testsuite/gdk/memorytexture.c
+++ b/testsuite/gdk/memorytexture.c
@@ -765,7 +765,6 @@ add_test (const char    *name,
 int
 main (int argc, char *argv[])
 {
-  GdkSurface *surface;
   int result;
 
   gtk_test_init (&argc, &argv, NULL);
@@ -776,12 +775,10 @@ main (int argc, char *argv[])
   add_test ("/memorytexture/download_float_1x1", test_download_float_1x1);
   add_test ("/memorytexture/download_float_4x4", test_download_float_4x4);
 
-  surface = gdk_surface_new_toplevel (gdk_display_get_default());
   gl_renderer = gsk_gl_renderer_new ();
-  if (!gsk_renderer_realize (gl_renderer, surface, NULL))
+  if (!gsk_renderer_realize (gl_renderer, NULL, NULL))
     {
       g_clear_object (&gl_renderer);
-      g_clear_object (&surface);
     }
 
   result = g_test_run ();
@@ -791,7 +788,6 @@ main (int argc, char *argv[])
       gsk_renderer_unrealize (gl_renderer);
       g_clear_object (&gl_renderer);
     }
-  g_clear_object (&surface);
 
   return result;
 }
diff --git a/testsuite/gdk/texture-threads.c b/testsuite/gdk/texture-threads.c
index 5ca16e0ec5..17236070cf 100644
--- a/testsuite/gdk/texture-threads.c
+++ b/testsuite/gdk/texture-threads.c
@@ -64,7 +64,6 @@ texture_download_thread (GTask        *task,
 static void
 texture_threads (void)
 {
-  GdkSurface *surface;
   GskRenderer *gl_renderer;
   GskRenderNode *node;
   GMainLoop *loop;
@@ -73,15 +72,13 @@ texture_threads (void)
   GError *error = NULL;
 
   /* 1. Get a GL renderer */
-  surface = gdk_surface_new_toplevel (gdk_display_get_default());
   gl_renderer = gsk_gl_renderer_new ();
-  if (!gsk_renderer_realize (gl_renderer, surface, &error))
+  if (!gsk_renderer_realize (gl_renderer, NULL, &error))
     {
       g_test_skip (error->message);
 
       g_clear_error (&error);
       g_clear_object (&gl_renderer);
-      g_clear_object (&surface);
       return;
     }
 
@@ -116,7 +113,6 @@ texture_threads (void)
   gsk_renderer_unrealize (gl_renderer);
   g_clear_pointer (&loop, g_main_loop_unref);
   g_clear_object (&gl_renderer);
-  g_clear_object (&surface);
   g_main_context_release (NULL);
 }